Unveiling frustration : underlying mechanisms and individual differences

<p dir="ltr">Frustration constitutes a complex, goal-oriented emotional response that occurs when individuals encounter obstacles or the omission of rewards that hinder the achievement of their intentions or expectations. Despite its widespread occurrence, frustration remains an underexplored construct within the field of affective science, particularly concerning its underlying psychological mechanisms and the impact of individual differences on experiencing frustration. This thesis investigates frustration not as a discrete emotion confined to specific contexts, but as a dynamic and multidimensional phenomenon manifested through various behavioral, emotional, and cognitive patterns. Based on three empirical studies, this doctoral thesis examines the triggers of frustration, its affective and behavioral expressions, and the modulation of these responses by stable dispositional traits and situational factors. Multiple driving scenarios were employed as an ecologically valid, semi-structured behavioral context, neither fully controlled nor entirely random, offering a perspective to observe frustration within a naturalistic, goal-driven setting.</p><p dir="ltr"><b>Study I</b> examined the factors that trigger frustration within driving contexts and identified four latent categories: Achievement Obstacles, Unpredictable Experiences, External Distractions, and Distress Elicitors, which serve as predictors of frustration responses. Emotional expressions of frustration were similarly categorized into four affective dimensions: Irritation, Anxiety, Boredom, and Embarrassment. Regression analyses demonstrated that these affective dimensions are variably associated with behavioral tendencies, such as lapses, violations, and errors in self-regulatory functioning.</p><p dir="ltr"><b>Study II</b> utilized a person-centered methodology to identify how prone to frustration individuals are through Latent Profile Analysis. Four distinct profiles were identified: Minimal, Low, Moderate, and Severe, distinguished by the probability and severity of frustration experiences. These profiles were influenced by emotional reactivity, age, gender, and behavioral styles, indicating that frustration is not experienced uniformly but rather reflects underlying psychological diversity.</p><p dir="ltr"><b>Study III</b> introduced and assessed the Frustration Induction Task (FIT), an experimental paradigm designed to elicit frustration in controlled laboratory conditions. The FIT incorporates multiple components intended to induce frustration, such as ambiguous feedback, time pressure, and disrupted motor fluency, while enabling real-time assessment of frustration trajectories. The FIT task demonstrated psychological validity, capturing both the intensity and progression of frustration across trials.</p><p dir="ltr">Together, the three studies presented in this thesis contribute to a more nuanced understanding of frustration as a psychological construct, advancing theoretical models of emotion regulation, stress reactivity, and personality- based susceptibility. By integrating naturalistic observation with experimental precision, the research offers both methodological innovations and theoretical insights into how individuals navigate blocked goals and emotional challenges. This work underscores the value of frustration not only as a research focus but also as a diagnostic lens through which broader patterns of human emotion and behavior may be understood.</p><h3>List of scientific papers</h3><p dir="ltr">I. <b>Yazdi, H.</b>, Wickman, C., Ljung Aust, M., Selbing, I., Kowalski, L., & Axelsson, J. (2024). Understanding Frustration Triggers and Emotional Responses in Driving Situations. Scientific Reports, 14, 28613. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-76792-1">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-76792-1</a></p><p dir="ltr">II. <b>Yazdi, H.</b>, Ljung Aust, M., Wickman, C., Bujacz, A., Kowalski, L., & Lundström, J. N. (2025). Who gets frustrated? Identifying Individuals Prone to Frustration Using a Latent Profile Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1483965. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1483965" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1483965</a></p><p dir="ltr">III. <b>Yazdi, H.</b>, Dimoski, I., Gerikj, D., Celorio-Mancera, M. de la P., & Lundström, J. N. (2025). The Frustration Induction Task (FIT): A Method for Induction of Frustration in Experimental Studies. [Manuscript]</p>